Soil Properties

Data relating to soil properties are collected during the course of the soil survey. The data and the estimates of soil and water features listed in tables are explained on the following pages.

Soil properties are determined by field examination of the soils and by laboratory index testing of some benchmark soils. Established standard procedures are followed. During the survey, many shallow borings are made and examined to identify and classify the soils and to delineate them on the soil maps. Samples are taken from some typical profiles and tested in the laboratory to determine grain-size distribution, plasticity, and compaction characteristics.

Estimates of soil properties are based on field examinations, on laboratory tests of samples from the survey area, and on laboratory tests of samples of similar soils in nearby areas. Tests verify field observations, verify properties that cannot be estimated accurately by field observation, and help to characterize key soils.

The estimates of soil properties shown in the tables include the range of grain-size distribution and Atterberg limits, the engineering classification, and the physical and chemical properties of the major layers of each soil. Pertinent soil and water features also are given.

Table 12 gives estimates of the engineering classification and of the range of index properties for the major layers of each soil in the survey area. Most soils have layers of contrasting properties within the upper 5 or 6 feet.

Depth to the upper and lower boundaries of each layer is indicated. The range in depth and information on other properties of each layer are given for each taxonomic unit under the heading "Soil Series and Their Morphology."

Texture is given in the standard terms used by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. These terms are defined according to percentages of sand, silt, and clay in the fraction of the soil that is less than 2 millimeters in diameter. "Loam," for example, is soil that is 7 to 27 percent clay, 28 to 50 percent silt, and less than 52 percent sand. If the content of particles coarser than sand is as much as 15 percent, an appropriate modifier is added; for example, "gravelly." Textural terms are defined in the Glossary.

Classification of the soils is determined according to the Unified soil classification system (ASTM, 1993) and the system adopted by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO, 1986).

The Unified system classifies soils according to properties that affect their use as construction material. Soils are classified according to grain-size distribution of the fraction less than 3 inches in diameter and according to plasticity index, liquid limit, and organic matter content. Sandy and gravelly soils are identified as GW, GP, GM, GC, SW, SP, SM, and SC; silty and clayey soils as ML, CL, OL, MH, CH, and OH; and highly organic soils as PT. Soils exhibiting engineering properties of two groups can have a dual classification; for example, SC-SM.

The AASHTO system classifies soils according to those properties that affect roadway construction and maintenance. In this system, the fraction of a mineral soil that is less than 3 inches in diameter is classified in one of seven groups from A-1 through A-7 on the basis of grain-size distribution, liquid limit, and plasticity index. Soils in group A-1 are coarse grained and low in content of fines (silt and clay). At the other extreme, soils in group A-7 are fine grained. Highly organic soils are classified in group A-8 on the basis of visual inspection.

Rock fragments 3 to 10 inches in diameter are indicated as a percentage of the total soil on a dry-weight basis. The percentages are estimates determined mainly by converting volume percentage in the field to weight percentage.

Percentage (of soil particles) passing designated sieves is the percentage of the soil fraction less than 3 inches in diameter based on an ovendry weight. The sieves, numbers 4, 10, 40, and 200 (USA Standard Series), have openings of 4.76, 2.00, 0.420, and 0.074 millimeters, respectively. Estimates are based on laboratory tests of soils sampled in the survey area and in nearby areas and on estimates made in the field.

Liquid limit and plasticity index (Atterberg limits) indicate the plasticity characteristics of a soil. The estimates are based on test data from the survey area or from nearby areas and on field examination.

The estimates of grain-size distribution, liquid limit, and plasticity index generally are rounded to the nearest 5 percent. Thus, if the ranges of gradation and Atterberg limits extend a marginal amount (1 or 2 percentage points) across classification boundaries, the classification in the marginal zone is omitted in the table.

Table 13 shows estimates of some characteristics and features that affect soil behavior. These estimates are given for the major layers of each soil in the survey area. The estimates are based on field observations and on test data for these and similar soils.

Depth to the upper and lower boundaries of each layer is indicated. The range in depth and information on other properties of each layer are given for each taxonomic unit under the heading "Soil Series and Their Morphology."

Clay as a soil separate consists of mineral soil particles that are less than 0.002 millimeter in diameter. In this table, the estimated clay content of each major soil layer is given as a percentage, by weight, of the soil material that is less than 2 millimeters in diameter.

The amount and kind of clay greatly affect the fertility and physical condition of the soil. They determine the ability of the soil to adsorb cations and to retain moisture. They influence shrinking and swelling, permeability, plasticity, the ease of soil dispersion, and other soil properties. The amount and kind of clay in a soil also affect tillage and earth-moving operations.

Moist bulk density is the weight of soil (ovendry) per unit volume. Volume is measured when the soil is at field moisture capacity, that is, the moisture content at 1/3-bar moisture tension. Weight is determined after drying the soil at 105 degrees C. In this table, the estimated moist bulk density of each major soil horizon is expressed in grams per cubic centimeter of soil material that is less than 2 millimeters in diameter. Bulk density data are used to compute shrink-swell potential, available water capacity, total pore space, and other soil properties. The moist bulk density of a soil indicates the pore space available for water and roots. A bulk density of more than 1.6 can restrict water storage and root penetration. Moist bulk density is influenced by texture, kind of clay, content of organic matter, and soil structure.

Permeability refers to the ability of a soil to transmit water or air. The estimates indicate the rate of downward movement of water when the soil is saturated. They are based on soil characteristics observed in the field, particularly structure, porosity, and texture. Permeability is considered in the design of soil drainage systems and septic tank absorption fields.

Available water capacity refers to the quantity of water that the soil is capable of storing for use by plants. The capacity for water storage is given in inches of water per inch of soil for each major soil layer. The capacity varies, depending on soil properties that affect the retention of water and the depth of the root zone. The most important properties are the content of organic matter, soil texture, rock fragment content, bulk density, and soil structure. Available water capacity is an important factor in the choice of plants or crops to be grown and in the design and management of irrigation systems. Available water capacity is not an estimate of the quantity of water actually available to plants at any given time.

Soil reaction is a measure of acidity or alkalinity and is expressed as a range in pH values. The range in pH of each major horizon is based on many field tests. For many soils, values have been verified by laboratory analyses. Soil reaction is important in selecting crops and other plants, in evaluating soil amendments for fertility and stabilization, and in determining the risk of corrosion.

Shrink-swell potential is the potential for volume change in a soil with a loss or gain in moisture. Volume change occurs mainly because of the interaction of clay minerals with water and varies with the amount and type of clay minerals in the soil. The size of the load on the soil and the magnitude of the change in soil moisture content influence the amount of swelling of soils in place. Laboratory measurements of swelling of undisturbed clods were made for many soils. For others, swelling was estimated on the basis of the kind and amount of clay minerals in the soil and on measurements of similar soils.

If the shrink-swell potential is rated moderate to very high, shrinking and swelling can cause damage to buildings, roads, and other structures. Special design is often needed.

Shrink-swell potential classes are based on the change in length of an unconfined clod as moisture content is increased from air-dry to field capacity. The classes are low, a change of less than 3 percent; moderate, 3 to 6 percent; and high, more than 6 percent.

Erosion factor K indicates the susceptibility of a soil to sheet and rill erosion. Factor K is one of six factors used in the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) to predict the average rate of soil loss by sheet and rill erosion in tons per acre per year. The estimates are based primarily on percentage of silt, very fine sand, sand, and organic matter (as much as 4 percent) and on soil structure and permeability. The estimates are modified by the presence of rock fragments. Values of K range from 0.05 to 0.43. The higher the value, the more susceptible the soil is to sheet and rill erosion.

Erosion factor T is an estimate of the maximum average rate of soil erosion by wind or water that can occur without affecting crop productivity over a sustained period. The rate is in tons per acre per year.

Wind erodibility groups are made up of soils that have similar properties affecting their resistance to wind erosion in cultivated areas. The groups indicate the susceptibility of soil to wind erosion. The soils assigned to group 1 are the most susceptible to wind erosion, and those assigned to group 8 are the least susceptible. The groups are as follows:

1.  Coarse sands, sands, fine sands, and very fine sands.

2.  Loamy coarse sands, loamy sands, loamy fine sands, loamy very fine sands, ash material, and sapric soil material.

3.  Coarse sandy loams, sandy loams, fine sandy loams, and very fine sandy loams.

4L.  Calcareous loams, silt loams, clay loams, and silty clay loams.

4.  Clays, silty clays, noncalcareous clay loams, and silty clay loams that are more than 35 percent clay.

5.  Noncalcareous loams and silt loams that are less than 20 percent clay and sandy clay loams, sandy clays, and hemic soil material.

6.  Noncalcareous loams and silt loams that are more than 20 percent clay and noncalcareous clay loams that are less than 35 percent clay.

7.  Silts, noncalcareous silty clay loams that are less than 35 percent clay, and fibric soil material.

8.  Soils that are not subject to wind erosion because of coarse fragments on the surface or because of surface wetness.

Organic matter is the plant and animal residue in the soil at various stages of decomposition. In table 13, the estimated content of organic matter is expressed as a percentage, by weight, of the soil material that is less than 2 millimeters in diameter.

The content of organic matter in a soil can be maintained or increased by returning crop residue to the soil. Organic matter affects the available water capacity, infiltration rate, and tilth. It is a source of nitrogen and other nutrients for crops.

Tables 14 and 15 give estimates of various soil and water features. The estimates are used in land use planning that involves engineering considerations.

Hydrologic soil groups are used to estimate runoff from precipitation. Soils not protected by vegetation are assigned to one of four groups. They are grouped according to the infiltration of water when the soils are thoroughly wet and receive precipitation from long-duration storms.

The four hydrologic soil groups are:

Group A. Soils having a high infiltration rate (low runoff potential) when thoroughly wet. These consist mainly of deep, well drained to excessively drained sands or gravelly sands. These soils have a high rate of water transmission.

Group B. Soils having a moderate infiltration rate when thoroughly wet. These consist chiefly of moderately deep or deep, moderately well drained or well drained soils that have moderately fine texture to moderately coarse texture. These soils have a moderate rate of water transmission.

Group C. Soils having a slow infiltration rate when thoroughly wet. These consist chiefly of soils having a layer that impedes the downward movement of water or soils of moderately fine texture or fine texture. These soils have a slow rate of water transmission.

Group D. Soils having a very slow infiltration rate (high runoff potential) when thoroughly wet. These consist chiefly of clays that have a high shrink-swell potential, soils that have a permanent high water table, soils that have a claypan or clay layer at or near the surface, and soils that are shallow over nearly impervious material. These soils have a very slow rate of water transmission.

Flooding, the temporary covering of the soil surface by flowing water, is caused by overflow from streams, by runoff from adjacent slopes, or by inflow from high tides. Shallow water standing or flowing for short periods after rainfall or snowmelt is not considered to be flooding. Standing water in swamps and marshes or in closed depressional areas is considered to be ponding.

Table 14 gives the frequency and duration of flooding and the time of year when flooding is most likely to occur.

Frequency, duration, and probable dates of occurrence are estimated. Frequency is expressed as none, rare, occasional, or frequent. None means that flooding is not probable, rare that it is unlikely but is possible under unusual weather conditions (the chance of flooding is nearly 0 percent to 5 percent in any year), occasional that it occurs infrequently under normal weather conditions (the chance of flooding is 5 to 50 percent in any year), and frequent that it occurs often under normal weather conditions (the chance of flooding is more than 50 percent in any year). Duration is expressed as very brief (less than 2 days), brief (2 to 7 days), long (7 days to 1 month), and very long (more than 1 month). The time of year that flooding is most likely to occur is expressed in months. About two-thirds to three-fourths of all flooding occurs during the stated period.

The information on flooding is based on evidence in the soil profile, namely thin strata of gravel, sand, silt, or clay deposited by floodwater; irregular decrease in organic matter content with increasing depth; and little or no horizon development.

Also considered are local information about the extent and level of flooding and the relation of each soil on the landscape to historic floods. Information on the extent of flooding based on soil data is less specific than that provided by detailed engineering surveys that delineate flood-prone areas at specific flood frequency levels.

High water table (seasonal) is the highest level of a saturated zone in the soil in most years. The estimates are based mainly on the evidence of a saturated zone, namely grayish colors or mottles in the soil. Indicated in table 14 are the depth to the seasonal high water table; the kind of water table—that is, perched or apparent; and the months of the year that the water table usually is highest. A water table that is seasonally high for less than 1 month is not indicated in the table.

An apparent water table is a thick zone of free water in the soil. It is indicated by the level at which water stands in an uncased borehole after adequate time is allowed for adjustment in the surrounding soil. A perched water table is water standing above an unsaturated zone. In places an upper, or perched, water table is separated from a lower water table by a dry zone.

Two numbers in the column showing depth to the water table indicate the normal range in depth to a saturated zone. Depth is given to the nearest half foot. The first numeral in the range indicates the highest water level. "More than 6.0" indicates that the water table is below a depth of 6 feet or that it is within a depth of 6 feet for less than a month.

In table 15, depth to bedrock is given if bedrock is within a depth of 5 feet. The depth is based on many soil borings and on observations during soil mapping. The rock is specified as either soft or hard. If the rock is soft or fractured, excavations can be made with trenching machines, backhoes, or small rippers. If the rock is hard or massive, blasting or special equipment generally is needed for excavation.

A cemented pan is a cemented or indurated subsurface layer within a depth of 5 feet. Such a pan causes difficulty in excavation. Pans are classified as thin or thick. A thin pan is one that is less than 3 inches thick if continuously indurated or less than 18 inches thick if discontinuous or fractured. Excavations can be made by trenching machines, backhoes, or small rippers. A thick pan is one that is more than 3 inches thick if continuously indurated or more than 18 inches thick if it is discontinuous or fractured. Such a pan is so thick or massive that blasting or special equipment is needed in excavation.

Risk of corrosion pertains to potential soil-induced electrochemical or chemical action that dissolves or weakens uncoated steel or concrete. The rate of corrosion of uncoated steel is related to such factors as soil moisture, particle-size distribution, acidity, and electrical conductivity of the soil. The rate of corrosion of concrete is based mainly on the sulfate and sodium content, texture, moisture content, and acidity of the soil. Special site examination and design may be needed if the combination of factors creates a severe hazard of corrosion. The steel in installations that intersect soil boundaries or soil layers is more susceptible to corrosion than steel in installations that are entirely within one kind of soil or within one soil layer.

For uncoated steel, the risk of corrosion, expressed as low, moderate, or high, is based on soil drainage class, total acidity, electrical resistivity near field capacity, and electrical conductivity of the saturation extract.

For concrete, the risk of corrosion is also expressed as low, moderate, or high. It is based on soil texture, acidity, and amount of sulfates in the saturation extract.